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DOI10.47051/XPYM6795 Published June 20, 2020. Updated February 26, 2024. Open access.

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Greater Ground Snake (Atractus major)

Reptiles of Ecuador | Serpentes | Colubridae | Atractus major

English common names: Greater Ground Snake, Big Ground Snake.

Spanish common name: Tierrera grande, culebra tierrera mayor.

Recognition: ♂♂ 53.3 cmMaximum distance from the snout to the tip of the tail. Snout–vent length=51.2 cm. ♀♀ 98.6 cmMaximum distance from the snout to the tip of the tail. Snout–vent length=85.2 cm..^1,2 Atractus major can be recognized by its large size, small eyes, and dorsal pattern consisting of 21–52 pale-edged dark blotches or bands on a pale brown background color (Fig. 1).^1–4 Most individuals have a short dark stripe on the neck.^4,5 In Ecuadorian Amazonia, the most similar species are A. pachacamac and A. arangoi, both of which lack a dark mid-dorsal stripe on the neck.⁴ Atractus atlas occurs at higher elevation than A. major and also lacks a dark mid-dorsal stripe on the neck.⁶

Figure 1: Individuals of Atractus major: Huella Verde lodge, Pastaza province, Ecuador (); Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve, Napo province, Ecuador (); Palmarí, Amazonas state, Brazil (). j=juvenile.

Natural history: Atractus major is a semi-fossorial snake that inhabits primary and secondary rainforests,⁷ forest clearings,³ crops,⁸ and rural areas.⁹ Greater Ground Snakes are primarily nocturnal,^5,7–11 although diurnal activity has also been recorded.^5,12,13 They may be observed active on the ground, in leaf-litter,³ concealed beneath rocks, logs,^3,7,10 and even climbing on low vegetation.^7,8 Atractus major feeds primarily on giant earthworms^3,6,7,13 and occasionally on insects,^7,14 which are actively searched for and then captured and swallowed whole.⁵ Defensive behaviors include flattening the body, hiding the head under body coils,⁷ and poking with the tail.¹⁰ The only known predators of this species are coralsnakes (Micrurus surinamensis and Micrurus obscurus).^10,15 In some parts of the Amazon, hatching in A. major coincides with periods of low rainfall.⁷ Females containing 3–12 eggs have been found,¹⁶ but the real clutch size is unknown.

Conservation: Least Concern Believed to be safe from extinction given current circumstances..¹⁷ Atractus major is listed in this category because the species has a large distribution, uses a wide range of habitat types, occurs in protected areas, and lacks major immediate extinction threats.¹⁷ The impact of human activities on Ecuadorian populations of A. major is not clear, however, there are records of traffic mortality.¹⁸

Distribution: Atractus major is native to an area of approximately 403,448 km² throughout the Amazon basin and adjacent foothills of the Andes in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador (Fig. 2), Peru, and Venezuela.¹⁹

Figure 2: Distribution of Atractus major in Ecuador. The star corresponds to the type locality: Canelos, Pastaza province. See Appendix 1 for a complete list of the presence localities included in the map.

Etymology: The name Atractus, which is a latinization of the Greek word άτρακτος (=spindle),^20–22 probably refers to the fact that snakes of this genus have a uniform width throughout the body and a narrow tail, resembling an antique spindle used to spin fibers. The specific epithet major is a Latin word meaning “greater.” It probably refers to the comparatively large body size of this species.

See it in the wild: Atractus major is found at a rate of about once every few weeks throughout the Amazon of Ecuador. Some of the best localities to find snakes of this species are: Yasuní Scientific Station, Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve, and Tamandúa Ecological Reserve. The snakes are most easily located by scanning the forest floor and leaf-litter along trails at night.

Authors: Duvan Zambrano^aAffiliation: Universidad del Tolima, Ibagué, Colombia. and Alejandro Arteaga^bAffiliation: Tropical Herping (TH), Quito, Ecuador.

Photographers: Jose Vieira,^cAffiliation: Tropical Herping (TH), Quito, Ecuador.^,dAffiliation: ExSitu, Quito, Ecuador., Frank Pichardo,^cAffiliation: Tropical Herping (TH), Quito, Ecuador. and Sebastián Di Doménico^eAffiliation: Keeping Nature, Bogotá, Colombia.

How to cite? Zambrano D, Arteaga A (2024) Greater Ground Snake (Atractus major). In: Arteaga A, Bustamante L, Vieira J (Eds) Reptiles of Ecuador: Life in the middle of the world. Available from: www.reptilesofecuador.com. DOI: 10.47051/XPYM6795

Literature cited:

1. Boulenger G (1894) Catalogue of the snakes in the British Museum. Taylor & Francis, London, 382 pp. DOI: 10.5962/bhl.title.8316
2. Savage JM (1960) A revision of the Ecuadorian snakes of the colubrid genus Atractus. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 112: 1–86.
3. Duellman WE (1978) The biology of an equatorial herpetofauna in Amazonian Ecuador. Publications of the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas 65: 1–352.
4. Schargel WE, Lamar WW, Passos P, Valencia JH, Cisneros-Heredia DF, Campbell JA (2013) A new giant Atractus (Serpentes: Dipsadidae) from Ecuador, with notes on some other large Amazonian congeners. Zootaxa 3721: 455–474. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3721.5.2
5. Duellman WE (2005) Cusco amazónico: the lives of amphibians and reptiles in an Amazonian rainforest. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 433 pp.
6. Passos P, Scanferla A, Melo-Sampaio PR, Brito J, Almendariz A (2018) A giant on the ground: another large-bodied Atractus (Serpentes: Dipsadinae) from Ecuadorian Andes, with comments on the dietary specializations of the goo-eaters snakes. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 91: e20170976. DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201820170976
7. Martins M, Oliveira ME (1998) Natural history of snakes in forests of the Manaus region, Central Amazonia, Brazil. Herpetological Natural History 6: 78–150.
8. Dixon JR, Soini P (1986) The reptiles of the upper Amazon Basin, Iquitos region, Peru. Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, 154 pp.
9. Silva Haad JJ (2004) Las serpientes del género Atractus Wagler, 1828 (Colubridae, Xenodontinae) en la Amazonía colombiana. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 28: 1–446.
10. Field notes, Reptiles of Ecuador book project.
11. Natera-Mumaw M, Esqueda-González LF, Castelaín-Fernández M (2015) Atlas serpientes de Venezuela. Dimacofi Negocios Avanzados S.A., Santiago de Chile, 456 pp.
12. Duellman WE, Salas AW (1991) Annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of Cuzco Amazónico, Peru. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas 143: 1–13.
13. dos Santos-Costa MC, Maschio GF, Prudente AL (2015) Natural history of snakes from Floresta Nacional de Caxiuanã, eastern Amazonia, Brazil. Herpetology Notes 8: 69–98.
14. Martins M, Oliveira ME (1993) The snakes of the genus Atractus Wagler (Reptilia: Squamata: Colubridae) from the Manaus region, central Amazonia, Brazil. Zoologische Mededelingen 67: 21–40.
15. Field notes of Marcos Scarello.
16. Esqueda LF, La Marca E (2005) Revisión taxonómica y biogeográfica (con descripción de 5 nuevas especies) del genero Atractus (Colubridae: Dipsadinae) en los Andes de Venezuela. Herpetotropicos 2: 1–32.
17. Nogueira C, Cisneros-Heredia DF, Catenazzi A, Gonzales L, Schargel W, Rivas G (2016) Atractus major. The IUCN Red List of threatened species. Available from: www.iucnredlist.org
18. Filius J, van der Hoek Y, Jarrín‐V P, van Hooft P (2020) Wildlife roadkill patterns in a fragmented landscape of the Western Amazon. Ecology and Evolution 10: 6623–6635. 10.1002/ece3.6394
19. Nogueira CC, Argôlo AJS, Arzamendia V, Azevedo JA, Barbo FE, Bérnils RS, Bolochio BE, Borges-Martins M, Brasil-Godinho M, Braz H, Buononato MA, Cisneros-Heredia DF, Colli GR, Costa HC, Franco FL, Giraudo A, Gonzalez RC, Guedes T, Hoogmoed MS, Marques OAV, Montingelli GG, Passos P, Prudente ALC, Rivas GA, Sanchez PM, Serrano FC, Silva NJ, Strüssmann C, Vieira-Alencar JPS, Zaher H, Sawaya RJ, Martins M (2019) Atlas of Brazilian snakes: verified point-locality maps to mitigate the Wallacean shortfall in a megadiverse snake fauna. South American Journal of Herpetology 14: 1–274. DOI: 10.2994/SAJH-D-19-00120.1
20. Woodward SP, Tate R (1830) A manual of the Mollusca: being a treatise on recent and fossil shells. C. Lockwood and Company, London, 750 pp.
21. Beekes R (2010) Etymological dictionary of Greek. Brill, Boston, 1808 pp.
22. Duponchel P, Chevrolat L (1849) Atractus. In: d’Orbigny CD (Ed) Dictionnaire universel d’histoire naturelle. MM. Renard, Martinet et Cie., Paris, 312.

Appendix 1: Locality data used to create the distribution map of Atractus major in Ecuador (Fig. 2). Go to the section on symbols and abbreviations for a list of acronyms used. Asterisk (*) indicates type locality.

Country	Province	Locality	Source
Colombia	Caquetá	Estación de Campo Macagual	Calderón et al. 2023
Colombia	Putumayo	Mansoyá	Geopark Colombia 2022
Colombia	Putumayo	Mocoa	Passos & Fernandes 2008
Colombia	Putumayo	Puerto Caicedo	Passos & Fernandes 2008
Colombia	Putumayo	Río Putumayo	Grant et al. 2023
Colombia	Putumayo	Vereda Islas de Cartagena	Borja-Acosta & Galeano 2024
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Bosque Protector Abanico	Lozano & Medranda 2008
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Centro Shuar Kiim	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Chiguaza	USNM 232690; VertNet
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Finca El Piura	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Gualaquiza	Savage 1960
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Macas	Passos & Fernandes 2008
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Macas–Riobamba road	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Macuma	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Méndez, environs of	USNM 232692; VertNet
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Paantim	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Río Abanico	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Río Santiago	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	San Pedro de Chumpias	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Taisha	Photo by Axel Marchelie
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Turula	AMNH 35966; examined
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Villa Ashuara	Ortega-Andrade 2010
Ecuador	Napo	Alto Sindi	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Napo	Comunidad Gareno	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Napo	Huataraco	USNM 232653; VertNet
Ecuador	Napo	Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Napo	Lago Agrio	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Napo	Pacto Sumaco, 3 km S of	Camper et al. 2021
Ecuador	Napo	Río Cotopino	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Napo	Río Pucuno	USNM 232650; VertNet
Ecuador	Napo	Río Suno	USNM 232658; VertNet
Ecuador	Napo	Shushufindi, Río Aguarico	USNM 232660; VertNet
Ecuador	Napo	Sinchi Sacha	Photo by Ernesto Arbeláez
Ecuador	Napo	Tena, av. Muyuna	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Napo	Wild Sumaco Wildlife Sanctuary	Camper et al. 2021
Ecuador	Napo	Yachana Reserve	Whitworth & Beirne 2011
Ecuador	Napo	Zoo el Arca	Photo by Diego Piñán
Ecuador	Orellana	Boca del Río Coca	Passos et al. 2007
Ecuador	Orellana	Kupi, 5 km NE of	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Orellana	Loreto	USNM 232656; VertNet
Ecuador	Orellana	Napo Wildlife Center	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Orellana	Nenkepare	Photo by Etienne Littlefair
Ecuador	Orellana	NPF	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Orellana	NPF, 5 km N of	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Orellana	Reserva Río Bigal	García et al. 2021
Ecuador	Orellana	San José de Payamino	Maynard et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Shiripuno Lodge	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Orellana	Tambococha	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Orellana	Tiguino	Passos et al. 2007
Ecuador	Orellana	Tiputini Biodiversity Station	Cisneros-Heredia 2003
Ecuador	Orellana	Vía Pompeya Sur–Iro	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Orellana	Yarentaro	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Orellana	Yasuni Scientific Station	Arteaga et al. 2017
Ecuador	Orellana	Yuturi	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Pastaza	5 km S de Campo Yuralpa, Plataforma Waponi	Torres-Carvajal et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	Alto Curaray	USNM 232671; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Arajuno	USNM 232670; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Arutam Field Station	SMF; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Betwen Puyo and Macas	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Pastaza	Cabeceras del Bobonaza	USNM 232680; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Campo K10	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Pastaza	Canelos*	Boulenger 1894
Ecuador	Pastaza	Charapacocha	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Pastaza	Chichirota	USNM 232674; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Copataza	USNM 232666; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Curaray	Passos & Fernandes 2008
Ecuador	Pastaza	Guache	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	Hacienda San Francisco	Savage 1961
Ecuador	Pastaza	Huella Verde Lodge	This work; Fig. 1
Ecuador	Pastaza	Juyuintza	Ortega-Andrade 2010
Ecuador	Pastaza	Kapawi Lodge	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Pastaza	Lorocachi	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Pastaza	Manderoyacu	Passos et al. 2007
Ecuador	Pastaza	Mera	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Bufeo	Ortega-Andrade 2010
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Corrientes	USNM 232672; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Lliquino	USNM 232667; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Sarayakillo	Arteaga et al. 2022
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Talin	USNM 232675; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Tigre	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Villano	USNM 232676; VertNet
Ecuador	Pastaza	Sarayacu	Savage 1960
Ecuador	Pastaza	Sumak Kawsay In Situ	Bentley et al. 2021
Ecuador	Pastaza	Tamandúa Reserve	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Pastaza	Tarangaro	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	UNOCAL Base Camp	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Pastaza	Villano B	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Bocana Río Cuyabeno	Passos et al. 2007
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Duvuno	Passos et al. 2007
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	El Reventador	MHNG 2250.033; collection database
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Garzacocha	Yánez-Muñoz & Venegas 2008
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Gonzalo Pizarro	Photo by John Castillo
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Lumbaqui	MCZ 166523; VertNet
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Lumbaqui, parroquia urbana	Dueñas and Báez 2021
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Pañachoca	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Río San Miguel	Reptiles of Ecuador book database
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Sani Lodge	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Santa Cecilia	Schargel et al. 2013
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Santa Elena	iNaturalist; photo examined
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Territorio Cofán Dureno	Yánez-Muñoz & Chimbo 2007
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Alto Machinaza	Almendáriz et al. 2014
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Bombuscaro	Mejía Guerrero 2018
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Cabañas Yakuam	Arteaga et al. 2017
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Copalinga Lodge	Photo by Aaron Hulsey
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	El Pangui	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Parque Nacional Podocarpus	Darwin Núñez
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Reserva Natural Maycu	Arteaga et al. 2017
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Valle del Quimi	Betancourt et al. 2018
Ecuador	Zamora Chinchipe	Zamora	Schargel et al. 2013
Perú	Amazonas	Paagat	USNM 316576; VertNet
Perú	Loreto	Campo Santa Clara	USNM 127120; VertNet
Perú	Loreto	Centro Unión	Dixon & Soini 1986
Perú	Loreto	Mishana	Passos et al. 2012
Perú	Loreto	Zona Reservada Güeppi	iNaturalist; photo examined

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