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DOI10.47051/TZUI8784 Published November 6, 2021. Open access.

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Aquatic Coralsnake (Micrurus surinamensis)

Reptiles of Ecuador | Serpentes | Elapidae | Micrurus | Micrurus surinamensis

English common names: Aquatic Coralsnake, Amazonian Aquatic Coralsnake.

Spanish common names: Coral acuática, coral de agua.

Recognition: ♂♂ 126.2 cmMaximum distance from the snout to the tip of the tail. Snout–vent length=111.5 cm. ♀♀ 135 cmMaximum distance from the snout to the tip of the tail..^1,2 In Ecuador, the majority of true coralsnakes can be distinguished from most, but not all, false coral snakes by having brightly colored rings that encircle the body, small eyes that are about the same size as the post-ocular scales, and no loreal scale.^3,4 In the Amazon rainforest of Ecuador, Micrurus surinamensis is unmistakable due to its robust body, black rings arranged in triads, and red head cap with each scale outlined in black (Fig. 1).⁴ It is also unique among coral snakes in having the eyes and nostrils oriented dorsally, an adaptation for aquatic living.¹ The presence of complete black triads separates this species from the Aesculapian False-Coralsnake (Erythrolamprus aesculapii), which, in Ecuador, has black rings arranged in dyads.⁵

Figure 1: Individuals of Micrurus surinamensis from Río Bigai Reserve () and from an unknown locality (), Orellana province, Ecuador.

Natural history: Micrurus surinamensis is an uncommon snake that inhabits pristine to heavily disturbed rainforests, which may be terra-firme or seasonally flooded,⁴ but also ventures into clearings, rural gardens, and houses near the forest border.^6,7 Aquatic Coralsnakes are active at night, especially between sunset and midnight,^3,8 but occasionally also during the day.^3,7 They are semi-aquatic, which means individuals are usually, but not exclusively, found in or along slow-moving rivers, streams, swamps, ponds (including artificial tilapia ponds),³ and lagoons.^3,9–11 They also forage on mud, leaf-litter, and even on vegetation.^4,6 Juveniles have been seen coiled on vines and shrubs 1.35–1.38 m above the ground.^12,13 These snakes actively forage above and below the water surface in search of prey. Their diet primarily includes swamp eels (Synbranchus marmoratus),^4,14 knifefish (Gymnotus carapo^4,15,14 and Sternopygus macrurus¹⁶), armored catfish (Callichthys callichthys),^4,8,11 and other species of bony fishes,^4,11 but also lizards⁷ and snakes (Atractus major⁶ and Erythrolamprus reginae¹⁷). An instance of predation was recorded in Brazil in which the snake slowly approached and seized the fish, bit the prey, and released it after envenomation. The ingestion process initiated after 10 minutes.⁸ Aquatic Coralsnakes rely on their warning coloration as a primary defense mechanism. Individuals are usually calm and try to flee when threatened.² If disturbed, they engage in complex and seemingly erratic behavior: they hide the head beneath body coils, crawl spasmodically forward and then backward, flatten their body dorso-ventrally, and display their bright tails as a decoy.^3–6 They are also capable of striking if provoked. Aquatic Coralsnakes are proteroglyphous and venomous (LD50The median lethal dose (LD50) is a measure of venom strength. It is the minium dosage of venom that will lead to the deaths of 50% of the tested population. 0.2–0.4 mg/kg).¹⁸ The venom appears to have evolved mainly to immobilize aquatic prey,^18,19 since it is more lethal to fish than to mice, snakes, or amphisbaenians.¹⁸ The venom is mostly neurotoxic^20–22 with little or not myotoxic (muscle breaking) activity,²³ and the yield per bite is higher (up to 160 mg or 0.16 cc) than that of other Amazonian coralsnakes.² In humans, it causes paresthesia (a burning or prickling sensation), blurred vision, muscle paralysis, difficulty breathing, and even death by respiratory arrest.^2,24,25 Gravid females of M. surinamensis have been found to contain 5–12 eggs, and clutches of 8–13 eggs have been reported.^3,2 The hatchlings measure 33–35 cm in total length.²⁶

Conservation: Least Concern Believed to be safe from extinction given current circumstances..^27–29 Micrurus surinamensis is included in this category because the species is widely distributed, occurs in major protected areas, has presumed stable populations, and is currently facing no major widespread extinction threats.²⁷ The most important threat to the long-term survival of some populations is habitat destruction mostly due to mining, oil extraction, and the expansion of the agricultural frontier. Individuals of M. surinamensis also suffer from traffic mortality and direct killing at the hands of local people.³

Distribution: Micrurus surinamensis is widely distributed throughout the Amazon, occurring in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador (Fig. 2), French Guiana, Guyana, Perú, and Suriname.

Figure 2: Distribution of Micrurus surinamensis in Ecuador. The type locality is Suriname. See Appendix 1 for a complete list of the presence localities included in the map.

Etymology: The name Micrurus is derived from the Greek words mikros (=small) and oura (=tail), referring to the short tail in members of this genus.⁴ The species epithet surinamensis refers to the type locality: Suriname.⁴

See it in the wild: Aquatic Coralsnakes are usually found no more than once every few weeks at any given locality. In Ecuador, the areas having the greatest number of recent observations are Sani Lodge, Yasuní Scientific Station, and Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve. It appears that the best way to find Aquatic Coralsnakes is to walk along forest streams and swamps right after sunset, especially after a warm and rainy day.

Author: Alejandro Arteaga^aAffiliation: Khamai Foundation, Quito, Ecuador.

Photographers: Jose Vieira^bAffiliation: Tropical Herping (TH), Quito, Ecuador.^,cAffiliation: ExSitu, Quito, Ecuador. and Amanda Quezada^aAffiliation: Khamai Foundation, Quito, Ecuador.

How to cite? Arteaga A (2021) Aquatic Coralsnake (Micrurus surinamensis). In: Arteaga A, Bustamante L, Vieira J (Eds) Reptiles of Ecuador: Life in the middle of the world. Available from: www.reptilesofecuador.com. DOI: 10.47051/TZUI8784

Literature cited:

1. Duellman WE (1978) The biology of an equatorial herpetofauna in Amazonian Ecuador. Publications of the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas 65: 1–352.
2. Silva Haad JJ (1994) Los Micrurus de la Amazonia Colombiana. Biología y toxicología experimental de sus venenos. Colombia Amazónica 7: 1–76.
3. Valencia JH, Garzón-Tello K, Barragán-Paladines ME (2016) Serpientes venenosas del Ecuador: sistemática, taxonomía, historial natural, conservación, envenenamiento y aspectos antropológicos. Fundación Herpetológica Gustavo Orcés, Quito, 653 pp.
4. Campbell JA, Lamar WW (2004) The venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 774 pp.
5. Curcio FF, Scali S, Rodrigues MT (2015) Taxonomic status of Erythrolamprus bizona Jan (1863 (Serpentes, Xenodontinae): assembling a puzzle with many missing pieces. Herpetological Monographs 29: 40–64. DOI: 10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-15-00002
6. Field notes, Reptiles of Ecuador book project.
7. Martins M, Oliveira ME (1998) Natural history of snakes in forests of the Manaus region, Central Amazonia, Brazil. Herpetological Natural History 6: 78–150.
8. Morais DH, Ávila RW, Kawashita-Ribeiro RA, Carvalho MA (2011) Squamata, Elapidae, Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817): new records and distribution map in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, with notes on diet and activity period. Check List 7: 350–351.
9. Silva Haad JJ, Rodríguez RA (1985) Las serpientes Micrurus de la Amazonía Colombiana. Amazonía 85: 26–28.
10. Duellman WE (2005) Cusco amazónico: the lives of amphibians and reptiles in an Amazonian rainforest. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 433 pp.
11. Roze JA (1996) Coral snakes of the Americas: biology, indentification, and venoms. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, 328 pp.
12. Hartdegen RW, Aucone B (2001) Natural history notes: Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis (NCN): arboreality. Herpetological Review 32: 264.
13. Bertão Dávila PE, Takahashi HS, Oshiro Barbosa MH (2014) Micrurus surinamensis (Aquatic Coralsnake): behavior. Herpetological Review 45: 340.
14. Schmidt KP (1952) The Surinam coral snake Micrurus surinamensis. Fieldiana: Zoology 34: 25–34.
15. Bean BA (1924) A curious fish trap. Copeia 1924: 57–58.
16. Tavares-Pinheiro R, Souza Melo F, Martins Barbosa de Figueiredo VA, Ribeiro Sanches P, Costa Anaissi JS, Salviano Santana MM, Oliveira-Souza AE, dos Santos Reis T, Lima Rebelo G, Vasconcelos Melo FT, Costa-Campos CE (2021) “In living color”: predation by the coralsnake Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1816) (Serpentes: Elapidae) on a knifefish in the eastern Amazon, Brazil. Herpetology Notes 14: 755–758.
17. Pinto RR, Gomes M, Carvalho Jr R (2011) Micrurus surinamensis (Aquatic Coralsnake): ophiophagy. Herpetological Review 42: 441.
18. da Silva Jr NJ, Aird SD (2001) Prey specificity, comparative lethality and compositional differences of coral snake venoms. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 128: 425–456. DOI: 10.1016/s1532-0456(00)00215-5
19. Sanz L, de Freitas-Lima LN, Quesada-Bernat S, Graça-de-Souzab VK, Soares AM, Calderón LdA, Calvete JJ, Caldeira CAS (2019) Comparative venomics of Brazilian coral snakes: Micrurus frontalis, Micrurus spixii spixii, and Micrurus surinamensis. Toxicon 166: 39–45. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.001
20. Olamendi-Portugal T, Batista CVF, Restano-Cassulini R, Pando V, Villa-Hernandez O, Zavaleta-Martínez-Vargas A, Salas-Arruz MC, Rodríguez de la Vega RC, Becerril B, Possani LD (2008) Proteomic analysis of the venom from the fish eating coral snake Micrurus surinamensis: novel toxins, their function and phylogeny. Proteomics 8: 1919–1932. DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200700668
21. Terra AL, Moreira-Dill LS, Simoes-Silva R, Monteiro JR, Cavalcante WL, Gallacci M, Barros NB, Nicolete R, Teles CB, Medeiros PS, Zanchi FB, Zuliani JP, Calderon LA, Stabeli RG, Soares AM (2015) Biological characterization of the Amazon coral Micrurus spixii snake venom: Isolation of a new neurotoxic phospholipase A2. Toxicon 103: 1-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.06.011
22. Cecchini AL, Marcussi S, Silveira LB, Borja-Oliveira CR, Rodrigues-Simioni L, Amara S, Stábeli RG, Giglio JR, Arantes EC, Soares AM (2005) Biological and enzymatic activities of Micrurus sp. (Coral) snake venoms. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 140: 125–134. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.11.012
23. da Rocha Oliveira F, Nogueira Noronha MdD, Lopez Lozano JL (2017) Biological and molecular properties of yellow venom of the Amazonian coral snake Micrurus surinamensis. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 50: 365–373. DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0408-2016
24. Warrell DA (2004) Snakebites in Central and South America: epidemiology, clinical features, and clinical management. In: Campbell JA, Lamar WW (Eds) The Venomous reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 709–761.
25. de Oliveira Pardal PP, de Oliveira Pardal JS, da Costa Gadelha MA, da Silva Rodrigues L, Feitosa DT, da Costa Prudente AL, Fan HW (2010) Envenomation by Micrurus coral snakes in the Brazilian Amazon region: report of two cases. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 52: 333–337. DOI: 10.1590/S0036-46652010000600009
26. Starace F (1998) Serpents et amphisbènes de Guyane Française. Ibis Rouge Editions, Guadeloupe, 450 pp.
27. Ines Hladki A, Ramírez Pinilla M, Renjifo J, Urbina N, Nogueira C, Gonzales L, Hoogmoed M, Schargel W, Rivas G (2019) Micrurus surinamensis. The IUCN Red List of threatened species. Available from: www.iucnredlist.org. DOI: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T44582094A44582103.en
28. Reyes-Puig C (2015) Un método integrativo para evaluar el estado de conservación de las especies y su aplicación a los reptiles del Ecuador. MSc thesis, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, 73 pp.
29. Carrillo E, Aldás A, Altamirano M, Ayala F, Cisneros-Heredia DF, Endara A, Márquez C, Morales M, Nogales F, Salvador P, Torres ML, Valencia J, Villamarín F, Yánez-Muñoz M, Zárate P (2005) Lista roja de los reptiles del Ecuador. Fundación Novum Millenium, Quito, 46 pp.

Appendix 1: Locality data used to create the distribution map of Micrurus surinamensis in Ecuador (Fig. 2). Go to the section on symbols and abbreviations for a list of acronyms used.

Country	Province	Locality	Source
Colombia	Caquetá	El Rochal	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	El Rubí	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Florencia, 6 km NW of	iNaturalist
Colombia	Caquetá	Morelia	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Navarco	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Tres Esquinas del Caguán	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Valparaíso	iNaturalist
Colombia	Caquetá	Vereda La Floresta	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Vereda La Viciosa	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Vereda Los Ángeles	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Vereda Pore	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Caquetá	Vereda San Juan	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Putumayo	Finca San Carlos	Díaz-Ricaurte & Fiorillo 2019
Colombia	Putumayo	Simón Bolívar	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Amazonas	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Centro Kusutka	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Kiim	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Kushapucus	MZUA.RE.0197
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Macuma	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Paantim	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Santiago de Tiwintza	MCZ 45782
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Shuin Mamus	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Taisha	Photo by Axel Marchelie
Ecuador	Morona Santiago	Tunants	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Napo	Archidona	Online multimedia
Ecuador	Napo	Atacapi	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Napo	Chontapunta	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Napo	Finca Fischer	TCWC 69458
Ecuador	Napo	Jatun Sacha Biological Station	Vigle 2008
Ecuador	Napo	Liana Lodge	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Napo	Misahuallí	KU 202957
Ecuador	Napo	Muyuna	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Napo	Puerto Mishuallí	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Napo	Rancho Johanna	TCWC 68725
Ecuador	Napo	San Pedro	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Napo	Sinchi Sacha	Photo by Ernesto Arbeláez
Ecuador	Napo	Suchipakari Lodge	This work
Ecuador	Napo	Tena	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Napo	Tena, 5 km SW of	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Napo	Yachana Reserve	Whitworth & Beirne 2011
Ecuador	Napo	Yuralpa	This work
Ecuador	Napo	Zoo el Arca	Photo by Diego Piñán
Ecuador	Orellana	Campo Repsol YPF	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Dayuma	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	El Coca	MHNG 2249.017
Ecuador	Orellana	El Coca, 15 km W of	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Orellana	Laguna de Jatuncocha	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Margen del Río Nashiño	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	NPF	Photo by Neshat Shoghi
Ecuador	Orellana	Nuevo Rocafuerte	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Puerto Miranda	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Orellana	San José de Payamino	Maynard et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Tiputini	USNM 232496
Ecuador	Orellana	Tiputini Biodiversity Station	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Orellana	Vía Hollín–Loreto, km 77	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Vía Pompeya Sur–Iro, km 86	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Orellana	Yasuní Scientific Station	This work
Ecuador	Pastaza	Andoas	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Pastaza	Anga Cocha	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	Balsaura	Ortega-Andrade 2010
Ecuador	Pastaza	Boca del Río Capahuari	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Pastaza	Juyuintza	Ortega-Andrade 2010
Ecuador	Pastaza	Killu Allpa	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Pastaza	Montalvo	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Copataza	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Corrientes	USNM 232497
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Pastaza	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Rutuno	USNM 232499
Ecuador	Pastaza	Río Tzapino	Campbell & Lamar 2004
Ecuador	Pastaza	Shiripuno Lodge	Online multimedia
Ecuador	Pastaza	Uyuimi	Online multimedia
Ecuador	Pastaza	Uyuimi	Photo by Darwin Núñez
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Campo Libertador	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Campo Unita	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Dureno	Yánez-Muñoz & Chimbo 2007
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Garzacocha	Yánez-Muñóz & Venegas 2008
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Lagartococha	USNM 232495
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Lago Agrio	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Playas del Cuyabeno	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno	FMNH 2008
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Río Aguarico	Nogueira et al. 2019
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	San Pablo de Kantesiya	Valencia et al. 2016
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	San Pedro de los Cofanes	iNaturalist
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Sani Lodge	This work
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Santa Cecilia	Duellman 1978
Ecuador	Sucumbíos	Sevilla	iNaturalist
Perú	Amazonas	Aguaruna Village	MVZ 163331
Perú	Amazonas	Caterpiza	USNM 566631
Perú	Amazonas	Huampami	USNM 316654
Perú	Amazonas	Teniente Pinglo	USNM 566634
Perú	Loreto	Aguas Negras	FMNH 2008
Perú	Loreto	Puerto Nuevo de Parinari, 7 km S of	iNaturalist
Perú	Loreto	Reserva Nacional Pacaya Samiria	iNaturalist
Perú	Loreto	Zona de Reserva Güepi	iNaturalist

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